| Inorganic Carbon Compounds | | | | sand and feldspar. Either it is formed as needed in the |
| Inorganic macromolecule carbon-containing compounds | | | | beginning, then heated, which is the general process of |
| are either found in nature or made synthetically. In the | | | | pottery, or it is made into some other shape or form |
| production of inorganic macromolecules, elements such | | | | using some other industrial method. Ceramic products |
| as carbon or the compounds of silicon oxide and | | | | are often used in construction, as clay bricks or brick |
| silicon-containing acids are bonded together to form | | | | dust of one sort or another. Sand and ash matter are |
| polymers. Diamond, graphite and quartz are among the | | | | used to make bricks, formable or otherwise, shingles |
| inorganic micromolecules found in nature which contain | | | | and even canalisation pipes. Fire resistant material is |
| carbon. Diamond and graphite are composed of | | | | usually used. The processes that individual ceramics |
| carbon atoms which are bonded together by | | | | are made from differ only according to those products' |
| interatomic forces. | | | | shaping. The desired shape can be attained by casting, |
| Diamond | | | | pressing, smothering or in other various ways. |
| The carbon in diamond takes a crystal lattice | | | | Synthetic Macromolecules |
| formation in which the carbon atoms are arranged in | | | | Synthetics are synthetic macromolecular compounds |
| the shape of a tetrahedron. The spatial arrangement | | | | which are used in a variety of different ways. They |
| of a material determines its hardness and the firmness | | | | replace materials such as natural fibres, wood, metals |
| of its crystals. Diamond is the hardest mineral in nature, | | | | and glass. Some synthetic materials are the result of |
| and is valued thanks to its strange and beautiful optical | | | | directed research, as in the production of plastics, with |
| effects, the result of its glimmer, shape and cut, not to | | | | some desired combination of properties which might |
| mention the fact that diamonds are quite rare. | | | | have some specific uses. Synthetics can be divided |
| Diamonds are found in the shape of octahedrons or | | | | into three major categories, according to the way they |
| skewed 12-sided crystals, also with contorted sides. | | | | behave when they are heated. We distinguish |
| The most valuable diamonds are the ones that are | | | | between thermoplastics, duroplastics and elastomers. |
| completely translucent, colourless and strongly light | | | | Thermoplastics soften when heated, liquifying in a |
| reflective. Besides colourless diamonds, there are | | | | certain temperature range. There is no chemical |
| diamonds that are brownish, grey, greenish, and with a | | | | change in their structure. These macromolecules are |
| slightly blue or red tinge. The value of one unit of | | | | composed of long, slightly branched chains which are |
| weight of a diamond is one carat (= 200g). Diamonds | | | | held together with the help of van der Waals forces |
| are used in the production of jewelry, among other | | | | and hydrogen bonds. When heated, these forces |
| things, but they must be polished. The most well-known | | | | between molecules are weakened, allowing the |
| shape of a polished diamond is called brilliant. Around | | | | molecules to be able to push on each other and shift |
| 95% of all diamonds found on Earth are not used in | | | | and move. |
| jewelry at all, however, instead finding use as drill bits | | | | Duroplastics do not soften when heated. Their |
| or cutting devices, due to their hardness. | | | | molecules are mutually strengthened with the help of |
| Diamonds can also be made synthetically, but natural | | | | paired electrons and the help of other bonds. At high |
| diamonds remain more prevalent, thanks to their rough | | | | temperature, these bonds do break, and the plastic |
| surfaces which are used for cutting and drilling. It is | | | | begins to decompose. |
| possible to manufacture diamonds which are used in | | | | Elastomers are synthetics which are easily formed |
| jewelry, but it is a very long, drawn-out process which | | | | mechanically. Once the stress is relieved, however, |
| costs more than it is actually worth. | | | | they return to their original shape. Their elasticity is |
| Graphite | | | | caused by a web of arranged molecules with large |
| In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in layers. | | | | spaces in between them. When heated, elastomers |
| Compared to diamond, graphite's hardness is negligible. | | | | begin to shrivel, because their molecules begin to |
| It is an opaque, black, very soft substance with good | | | | oscillate, and the network between them contracts. At |
| electrical and heat conductivity. Graphite does not burn | | | | high temperatures, elastomers break down. |
| well. | | | | Synthetics are used in almost every part of our daily |
| Man-made graphite is made using the Acheson | | | | lives. The reason is that they are materials which can |
| process, which is the reaction between the fuel coke | | | | be made to suit most any need. And this property of |
| and silicon are temperatures above 2000° C. It is | | | | theirs is truly used to its utmost, as the various uses of |
| also used as a blackening substance and a material in | | | | the three types of developed plastics can attest to. |
| the production of electrodes and collectors, and as a | | | | Colouring of Materials |
| moderating substance in nuclear reactors. Thanks to | | | | Electromagnetic waves of between 400 nanometers |
| its layered structure, it is found in layers in the quarries | | | | and 750 nanometers are in the visible spectrum of light, |
| where it is mined. | | | | so they can be seen by the human eye. With a prism, |
| In diamond, the hydrogen atoms present are bonded | | | | these wavelengths can be broken down into the |
| with strong covalent bonds to the carbon atoms in the | | | | colours of the spectrum, with certain ranges of |
| compound. Each carbon atom is bonded with four | | | | wavelengths corresponding to certain colours. Colours |
| other carbon atoms. This explains diamond's hardness | | | | are seen when a certain spectrum absorbs a certain |
| and high boiling point. | | | | length of wave. This absorption leads to electrons |
| Graphite is composed of carbon atoms in layers, flat. | | | | being excited, or even a whole molecule being excited. |
| The carbon atoms in graphite are bonded together | | | | Unabsorbed light is reflected and is seen as |
| with three covalent bonds. Between the individual | | | | complementary colour. Organic dyes have functional |
| layers, however, the van der Waals forces holding the | | | | groups with a number of bond types. Electrons p |
| material together are very weak. For this reason, | | | | absorb light of visible wavelengths, so that material |
| individual layers of graphite can separate from one | | | | appears as a complementary colour. Colour given off |
| another, which reduces the hardness of the whole | | | | by a group of atoms with multiple bonds is therefore |
| material. | | | | called chromatic (chroma = Greek colour). The colour |
| Carbonic Acid and Carbonates | | | | of a substance depends on the number and size of its |
| Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is a weak acid which occurs | | | | chromophores. |
| only in aqueous solution. It is sometimes mistakenly | | | | Coloured Indicators of pH |
| considered to be carbon dioxide (CO2) in solution, | | | | Some coloured substances change their colour |
| because of the reaction which produces it: Carbonic | | | | according to pH. We call these acid and base |
| acid is formed by the dissolving in water of carbon | | | | indicators. They can be used to determine the pH of a |
| dioxide according to the reaction | | | | solution, if not precisely. Colour change of an indicator is |
| CO2 + H2O ® H2CO3. | | | | based on the transfer of protons between solution and |
| The salts of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are | | | | indicator, which can cause a structural change in the |
| found in the Earth's crust. | | | | indicator molecule. In most cases, colour changes |
| Generally, hydrogen carbonates are formed by the | | | | because electrons p have been influenced by the |
| union of a metal and the HCO3 - group in a reaction | | | | presence of multiple bonds. Indictors exist in two forms |
| which releases one atom of hydrogen (a proton). This | | | | - as an acid-base pair. |
| means that one atom of hydrogen is replaced by one | | | | Acid-base indicator pair |
| atom of a metal. | | | | Acidic form + H2O ® basic form + H3O+ |
| Carbonates are also the salts of carbonic acid, with | | | | According to the acidity or alkalinity of the solution, the |
| the only difference that the original hydrogens in the | | | | equilibrium goes in one direction or the other. A visible |
| carbon acid are replaced by two metal atoms. When | | | | change in the colour of the indicator only occurs when |
| this occurs, the general formula of the salt formed is | | | | the concentration of the appropriate form of the |
| M2CO3 . Two atoms of hydrogen are released when | | | | indicator is increased a minimum of tenfold. For this |
| this type of molecule is formed. | | | | reason, there are indicators for transition ranges, which |
| Carbonates are most often found in non-living matter, | | | | indicate over a range of pH, not a specific one. |
| usually in the Earth's layers as rock-forming materials. | | | | Laboratory indicatorsphenolthalein range at pH 8.0-9.8 |
| Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is one of the main | | | | colourless to reddish purplebromothymol blue range at |
| minerals which is able to form other compounds. It is | | | | pH 6.0-7.6 yellow to bluemethylorange range at pH |
| slow to dissolve in water, forming a more easily soluble | | | | 3.1-4.4 red to yellow-orange |
| hydrogen carbonate, which reverts to its former state, | | | | Coloured molecules are called dyes. These can be |
| an insoluble, precipitated CaCO3, when the water is | | | | divided into paints and pigments. |
| evaporated out of the system. | | | | Paints are soluble molecules. Natural dyes can be |
| This is the natural process which forms the beautiful | | | | produced from plant or animal matter. One well known |
| stalactites that we see in caves all around the world. | | | | example is saphran, which comes from the crocus |
| Calcium carbonate is often called calcite. It is present in | | | | flower. This dye is used as a yellow dye and as a |
| nature in numerous forms. It can be white or yellow, | | | | spice. Natural colours are being replaced more and |
| reddish, greenish or brownish, translucent or opaque. | | | | more often with synthetic colours. These colours are |
| Clear calcite is an optically strong magnifier, so it was | | | | used first and foremost in the dyeing of textiles. Azure |
| often used as an optical instrument in the past. | | | | (blues) and anthracites are some of the most |
| Another rock-forming compound is calcite. Most of the | | | | well-known examples. Azure-coloured dyes are |
| time, the products that it forms are called lime or | | | | characterised by the presence of a N=N double bond. |
| limestones. Raw lime is transformed into quick lime at | | | | Aniline is used to produce azure dyes, which are |
| temperatures of over 1000° C. Any water mixed | | | | produced in two steps. In diazotaion are formed ions |
| into the original substance forms hydrate of lime, or | | | | of phenyldiazone, which bonds in the following step |
| slack lime, which is used in the construction industry as | | | | with phenol or another aromatic amine. This |
| an ingredient in cement and mortar. | | | | combination of an aromatic amine produces an azure |
| Of course, many other carbonate compounds exist, | | | | dye such as aniline yellow or chryzoid (yellow-brown). |
| most of which are found in the Earth's crust. Many of | | | | Pigments do not dissolve in the basic ingredients of |
| their titles have been eternalised because of the fact | | | | paints, instead forming suspensions. Pigments such as |
| that they are common geological materials, or because | | | | umbra? and ochre have been used for ages. Both are |
| place names have been named after them: For | | | | aluminum silicates which differ in the content of their |
| example, dolomite in the southern Carpatian Mountains, | | | | oxides. Ochre contains iron oxide, and umbra? contains |
| which now belongs to Italy. | | | | an additional manganese oxide. One of the most |
| The Compounds of Silicon | | | | important synthetic pigments is a white pigment made |
| Silica sol, an acid containing silicon, glass, porcelain, | | | | from titanium oxide. Pigments are often used as |
| bricks and mortar are some of the most important | | | | colours employed in printing presses and printers. |
| compounds which the element silicon forms. | | | | Pigments used as printing press colours:iron oxide |
| Silicon is found in nature bonded in the form of silicon | | | | redchromium oxide green |
| oxides which contain many complexcompounds. Many | | | | Iron chromate yellowcadmium sulfide yellow |
| minerals are composed of silicon-containing | | | | Tensides, or Surfactants |
| compounds, among other materials. | | | | Tensides are those materials which show surface |
| Silicon is the second most common element in the | | | | activity. These are used in a wide variety of ways, as |
| Earth's crust, at 25.8% . Silicon is not very reactive. | | | | cleaning products or as counter or other surface |
| Even its oxide, silicon oxide, can only be formed at high | | | | finishers. The oldest, most well known cleaning product |
| temperature. | | | | is soap. It is made from fats and active sodium bases |
| Silica sol, which is the common name for the | | | | and water. It is able to breakdown the ester bonds |
| oxygenated silicon-containing acid, is found in nature in | | | | between glycerine and carboxylic acids, which leads to |
| the form of its salts. The silica sol compound with the | | | | water joining in. Reactive products such as glycerine |
| simplest formula is the short-lived mono silicon, also | | | | and alkaline salts are oily acids. These are actually |
| known as orthosilicon acid (H4SiO4). As water is | | | | soaps. For this reason, we call this process |
| drawn from the molecule (condensation), the hydrogen | | | | saponification. The effects of soaps depend on the ion |
| atoms once present are replaced by atoms of silicon. | | | | content in water. Calcium ions replace the other ions |
| This new compound is called a polysilicon or | | | | present and bond with carboxylic acids to form a not |
| metasilicon acid. When a certain degree of | | | | very soluble calcium soap (see Fig. 1), whose cleaning |
| condensation is reached, the dissolved siliconic acids | | | | power is limited, because it sediments. |
| can transform into strongly hydrated colloidal silicon | | | | Because soaps have a variety of disadvantages, they |
| gels. | | | | were replaced early on by synthetic tensides. We can |
| The building block of silicon rock is silicon oxide, which is | | | | distinguish between anionic, cationic, non-ionic and |
| arranged in a polymeric atomic lattice. Silicon is found in | | | | amphoteric tensides. |
| its pure form as a so-called mineral crystal, but it often | | | | Anionic tensides are produced from two greasy |
| contains impurities such as sand. When melted, the | | | | alcohols of esterified sulphuric acids. These esters are |
| bonds between its atoms are broken, leading to the | | | | then neutralised with sodium hydroxide, so that a |
| breakdown of the molecule. When cooled, an | | | | sodium salt of monoalkylsulphuric acid is produced. |
| amorphic structure remains: This is glass. As glass | | | | Cation tensides are ammonium salts with long alkyline |
| forms, the fractures consolidate with the help of oxide | | | | rests. These tend to bond on to negatively charged |
| ions. Glass is a fairly hard, mostly non-crystalline | | | | surfaces. They are produced in the reaction of |
| structure which is breakable. It is inorganic material | | | | carboxylic acid with ammonia, which results in the |
| which does not have one definite melting point, | | | | production of alkylamines which are then substituted in |
| because with rising temperature it gradually softens | | | | a reaction with methyl chloride, resulting in ammonia as |
| until the point when it liquifies completely. From a | | | | a product. Cation tensides are used mostly as |
| structural point of view, glass is a spatially irregular web | | | | softeners. |
| composed of certain elements. It has low heat | | | | Non-ionic tensides see a charged portion of their |
| conductivity and a high resistance to electricity. Glass | | | | molecule replaced by an uncharged group. With |
| can be formed at high temperature in a process that | | | | alkylpolyglycolethers it is a polyester rest which |
| uses casting, blowing, pressing and rolling. | | | | creates a polar part of the molecule of the tenside. |
| Glass can be used in a number of areas. Thanks to its | | | | Non-ionic tensides have good moistening effect even |
| characteristics, it is most often used as a vessel for | | | | at low temperatures. |
| various liquids and other materials (because it is not | | | | Amphoteric tensides have one cation group and one |
| very reactive). It can be used in electronics as an | | | | anion group at their polar end. These are called |
| insulating material for electrical current. If other foreign | | | | amphotensides as well. Because they do not cause a |
| materials are added to glass, it will colour, or change | | | | reaction in human beings, they are often used in |
| hues (for example iron oxide will give glass a greenish | | | | cosmetic products. |
| hue). This often gives glass a decorative type of | | | | Other Cleaning Agents |
| feeling. | | | | In order to dissolve surface impurities, the effects of |
| The salts and esters of silica acid are known as | | | | lipophilic alkyl rests are used on dirt on the surface of a |
| silicates. Silicates contain, besides silicon and acid, metal | | | | given object (Figure 2). These are negatively charged |
| ions including potassium ions, sodium ions as well as | | | | and therefore repel each other. Parts of the stain are |
| aluminum ions. These molecules can be spatially | | | | removed by the lipophile end of the tenside molecule. |
| oriented in either one, two or three dimensional | | | | These are simply surrounded and carted off by the |
| structures. For this reason, there are numerous | | | | cleaning molecule. In our modern lives, we place great |
| silicates. | | | | emphasis on cleanliness and the products which clean |
| Natural silicates are reactants used in the production of | | | | up after us. These products, besides cleaning agents, |
| artificial silicates, as in for example cement and | | | | contain a wide variety of additives. The quality of |
| porcelain. Clay is produced by the weathering of mica. | | | | these is improving constantly. Think of all the wonderful |
| Clay and lime are used to make cement, which | | | | uses: perfumes, enzymes, inhibitors, whiteners, |
| hardens after mixing with water. | | | | softeners - all of which increase the performance of |
| China clay, or kaolin, a colourless clay, is used in the | | | | water. |
| production of porcelain. Kaolin is mixed with a silicon | | | | |