| Pigments in ink are made out of goat | | | | blow for the cochineal color industry. |
| urine. When goat urine rots it creates a | | | | When chemists created inexpensive |
| chemical that is productive in ink. | | | | substitutes for carmine, an industry and |
| Naturally occurring pigments such as | | | | a way of life went into steep decline. |
| ochres and iron oxides have been used as | | | | New sources for historic pigments |
| colorants since prehistoric times. | | | | Before the Industrial Revolution, many |
| Archaeologists have uncovered evidence | | | | pigments were known by the location |
| that early humans used paint for | | | | where they were produced. Pigments based |
| aesthetic purposes such as body | | | | on minerals and clays often bore the |
| decoration. Pigments and paint grinding | | | | name of the city or region where they |
| equipment believed to be between 350,000 | | | | were mined. Raw Sienna and Burnt Sienna |
| and 400,000 years old have been reported | | | | came from Sienna, Italy, while Raw Umber |
| in a cave at Twin Rivers, near Lusaka, | | | | and Burnt Umber came from Umbria. These |
| Zambia. | | | | pigments were among the easiest to |
| Before the Industrial Revolution, the | | | | synthesize, and chemists created modern |
| range of color available for art and | | | | colors based on the originals that were |
| decorative uses was technically limited. | | | | more consistent than colors mined from |
| Most of the pigments in use were earth | | | | the original ore bodies. But the place |
| and mineral pigments, or pigments of | | | | names remained. |
| biological origin. Pigments from unusual | | | | Historically and culturally, many famous |
| sources such as botanical materials, | | | | natural pigments have been replaced with |
| animal waste, insects, and mollusks were | | | | synthetic pigments, while retaining |
| harvested and traded over long | | | | historic names. In some cases the |
| distances. Some colors were costly or | | | | original color name has shifted in |
| impossible to mix with the range of | | | | meaning, as a historic name has been |
| pigments that were available. Blue and | | | | applied to a popular modern color. By |
| purple came to be associated with | | | | convention, a contemporary mixture of |
| royalty because of their expense. | | | | pigments that replaces a historical |
| Biological pigments were often difficult | | | | pigment is indicated by calling the |
| to acquire, and the details of their | | | | resulting color a hue, but manufacturers |
| production were kept secret by the | | | | are not always careful in maintaining |
| manufacturers. Tyrian Purple is a | | | | this distinction. The following examples |
| pigment made from the mucus of one of | | | | illustrate the shifting nature of |
| several species of Murex snail. | | | | historic pigment names: |
| Production of Tyrian Purple for use as a | | | | Indian Yellow was once produced by |
| fabric dye began as early as 1200 BCE by | | | | collecting the urine of cattle that had |
| the Phoenicians, and was continued by | | | | been fed only mango leaves. Dutch and |
| the Greeks and Romans until 1453 CE, | | | | Flemish painters of the 17th and 18th |
| with the fall of Constantinople. The | | | | centuries favored it for its luminescent |
| pigment was expensive and complex to | | | | qualities, and often used it to |
| produce, and items colored with it | | | | represent sunlight. In Girl with a Pearl |
| became associated with power and wealth. | | | | Earring, Vermeer's patron remarks that |
| Greek historian Theopompus, writing in | | | | Vermeer used "cow piss" to paint his |
| the 4th century BCE, reported that | | | | wife. Since mango leaves are |
| "purple for dyes fetched its weight in | | | | nutritionally inadequate for cattle, the |
| silver at Colophon [in Asia Minor]." | | | | practice of harvesting Indian Yellow was |
| Mineral pigments were also traded over | | | | eventually declared to be inhumane. |
| long distances. The only way to achieve | | | | Modern Indian Yellow Hue is a mixture of |
| a deep rich blue was by using a | | | | synthetic pigments. |
| semi-precious stone, lapis lazuli, and | | | | Ultramarine, originally the |
| the best sources of lapis were remote. | | | | semi-precious stone lapis lazuli, has |
| Flemish painter Jan Van Eyck, working in | | | | been replaced by an inexpensive modern |
| the 15th century, did not ordinarily | | | | synthetic pigment manufactured from |
| include blue in his paintings. To have | | | | aluminum silicate with sulfur |
| one's portrait commissioned and painted | | | | impurities. At the same time, Royal |
| with blue was considered a great luxury. | | | | Blue, another name once given to tints |
| If a patron wanted blue, they were | | | | produced from lapis lazuli, has evolved |
| forced to pay extra. When Van Eyck used | | | | to signify a much lighter and brighter |
| lapis, he never blended it with other | | | | color, and is usually mixed from Phthalo |
| colors. Instead he applied it in pure | | | | Blue and titanium dioxide, or from |
| form, almost as a decorative glaze. | | | | inexpensive synthetic blue dyes. Since |
| Spain's conquest of a New World empire | | | | synthetic ultramarine is chemically |
| in the 16th century introduced new | | | | identical with lapis lazuli, the "hue" |
| pigments and colors to peoples on both | | | | designation is not used. French Blue, |
| sides of the Atlantic. Carmine, a dye | | | | yet another historic name for |
| and pigment derived from a parasitic | | | | Ultramarine, was adopted by the textile |
| insect found in Central and South | | | | and apparel industry as a color name in |
| America, attained great status and value | | | | the 1990s, and was applied to a shade of |
| in Europe. Produced from harvested, | | | | blue that has nothing in common with the |
| dried, and crushed cochineal insects, | | | | historic pigment French Ultramarine. |
| carmine could be used in fabric dye, | | | | Vermilion, a toxic mercury compound |
| body paint, or in its solid lake form, | | | | favored for its deep red-orange color by |
| almost any kind of paint or cosmetic. | | | | old master painters such as Titian, has |
| Natives of Peru had been producing | | | | been replaced by convenience mixtures of |
| cochineal dyes for textiles since at | | | | synthetic, inorganic pigments. Although |
| least 700 CE,[4] but Europeans had never | | | | genuine Vermilion paint can still be |
| seen the color before. When the Spanish | | | | purchased for fine arts and art |
| invaded the Aztec empire in what is now | | | | conservation applications, few |
| Mexico, they were quick to exploit the | | | | manufacturers make it, because of legal |
| color for new trade opportunities. | | | | liability issues. Few artists buy it, |
| Carmine became the region's second most | | | | because it has been superseded by modern |
| valuable export next to silver. Pigments | | | | pigments that are both less expensive |
| produced from the cochineal insect gave | | | | and less toxic, as well as less reactive |
| the Catholic cardinals their vibrant | | | | with other pigments. As a result, |
| robes and the English "Redcoats" their | | | | genuine Vermilion is almost unavailable. |
| distinctive uniforms. The true source of | | | | Modern vermilion colors are properly |
| the pigment, an insect, was kept secret | | | | designated as Vermilion Hue to |
| until the 18th century, when biologists | | | | distinguish them from genuine Vermilion. |
| discovered the source.[5] | | | | Manufacturing and industrial standards |
| While Carmine was popular in Europe, | | | | Before the development of synthetic |
| blue remained an exclusive color, | | | | pigments, and the refinement of |
| associated with wealth and status. The | | | | techniques for extracting mineral |
| 17th century Dutch master Johannes | | | | pigments, batches of color were often |
| Vermeer often made lavish use of lapis | | | | inconsistent. With the development of a |
| lazuli. Girl with a Pearl Earring, a | | | | modern color industry, manufacturers and |
| novel by Tracy Chevalier, is a fictional | | | | professionals have cooperated to create |
| account of one of Vermeer's most famous | | | | international standards for identifying, |
| paintings. In Chevalier's novel, and in | | | | producing, measuring, and testing |
| the film based upon it, the artist uses | | | | colors. |
| lapis to paint the headscarf on a young | | | | First published in 1905, the Munsell |
| servant girl. Vermeer (played by Colin | | | | Color System became the foundation for a |
| Firth in the film version) admonishes | | | | series of color models, providing |
| the servant girl Griet (played by | | | | objective methods for the measurement of |
| Scarlett Johansson) to keep this secret | | | | color. The Munsell system describes a |
| from his wife, knowing that his wife | | | | color in three dimensions, hue, value |
| will be jealous.[6] | | | | (or lightness), and chroma, where chroma |
| Development of synthetic pigments | | | | is the difference from gray at a given |
| The Industrial and Scientific | | | | hue and value. |
| Revolutions brought a huge expansion in | | | | By the middle years of the 20th century, |
| the range of synthetic pigments, | | | | standardized methods for pigment |
| pigments that are manufactured or | | | | chemistry were available, part of an |
| refined from naturally occurring | | | | international movement to create such |
| materials, available both for | | | | standards in industry. The International |
| manufacturing and artistic expression. | | | | Organization for Standardization (ISO) |
| Because of the expense of Lapis Lazuli, | | | | develops technical standards for the |
| much effort went into finding a less | | | | manufacture of pigments and dyes. ISO |
| costly blue pigment. | | | | standards define various industrial and |
| Prussian Blue was the first synthetic | | | | chemical properties, and how to test for |
| pigment, discovered by accident in 1704. | | | | them. The principal ISO standards that |
| By the early 19th century, synthetic and | | | | relate to all pigments are as follows: |
| metallic blue pigments had been added to | | | | ISO-787 General methods of test for |
| the range of blues, including French | | | | pigments and extenders |
| Ultramarine, a synthetic form of Lapis | | | | ISO-8780 Methods of dispersion for |
| Lazuli, and the various forms of Cobalt | | | | assessment of dispersion characteristics |
| and Cerulean Blue. In the early 20th | | | | Other ISO standards pertain to |
| century, organic chemistry added Phthalo | | | | particular classes or categories of |
| Blue, a synthetic, organic pigment with | | | | pigments, based on their chemical |
| overwhelming tinting power. | | | | composition, such as ultramarine |
| Discoveries in color science created new | | | | pigments, titanium dioxide, iron oxide |
| industries and drove changes in fashion | | | | pigments, and so forth. |
| and taste. The discovery in 1856 of | | | | Many manufacturers of paints, inks, |
| mauveine, the first aniline dye, was a | | | | textiles, plastics, and colors have |
| forerunner for the development of | | | | voluntarily adopted the Colour Index |
| hundreds of synthetic dyes and pigments. | | | | International (CII) as a standard for |
| Mauveine was discovered by an | | | | identifying the pigments that they use |
| 18-year-old chemist named William Henry | | | | in manufacturing particular colors. |
| Perkin, who went on to exploit his | | | | First published in 1925, and now |
| discovery in industry and become | | | | published jointly on the web by the |
| wealthy. His success attracted a | | | | Society of Dyers and Colourists (United |
| generation of followers, as young | | | | Kingdom) and the American Association of |
| scientists went into organic chemistry | | | | Textile Chemists and Colorists (USA), |
| to pursue riches. Within a few years, | | | | this index is recognized internationally |
| chemists had synthesized a substitute | | | | as the authoritative reference on |
| for madder in the production of Alizarin | | | | colorants. It encompasses more than |
| Crimson. By the closing decades of the | | | | 27,000 products under more than 13,000 |
| 19th century, textiles, paints, and | | | | generic color index names. |
| other commodities in colors such as red, | | | | In the CII schema, each pigment has a |
| crimson, blue, and purple had become | | | | generic index number that identifies it |
| affordable.[7] | | | | chemically, regardless of proprietary |
| Self Portrait by Paul Cézanne. Working | | | | and historic names. For example, Phthalo |
| in the late 19th century, Cezanne had a | | | | Blue has been known by a variety of |
| palette of colors that earlier | | | | generic and proprietary names since its |
| generations of artists could only dream | | | | discovery in the 1930s. In much of |
| of. | | | | Europe, phthalocyanine blue is better |
| Self Portrait by Paul Cézanne. Working | | | | known as Helio Blue, or by a proprietary |
| in the late 19th century, Cezanne had a | | | | name such as Winsor Blue. An American |
| palette of colors that earlier | | | | paint manufacturer, Grumbacher, |
| generations of artists could only dream | | | | registered an alternate spelling (Thalo |
| of. | | | | Blue) as a trademark. Colour Index |
| Development of chemical pigments and | | | | International resolves all these |
| dyes helped bring new industrial | | | | conflicting historic, generic, and |
| prosperity to Germany and other | | | | proprietary names so that manufacturers |
| countries in northern Europe, but it | | | | and consumers can identify the pigment |
| brought dissolution and decline | | | | (or dye) used in a particular color |
| elsewhere. In Spain's former New World | | | | product. In the CII, all Phthalo Blue |
| empire, the production of cochineal | | | | pigments are designated by a generic |
| colors employed thousands of low-paid | | | | colour index number as either PB15 or |
| workers. The Spanish monopoly on | | | | PB36, short for pigment blue 15 and |
| cochineal production had been worth a | | | | pigment blue 36. (The two forms of |
| fortune until the early 1800s, when the | | | | Phthalo Blue, PB15 and PB36, reflect |
| Mexican War of Independence and other | | | | slight variations in molecular structure |
| market changes disrupted production.[8] | | | | that produce a slightly more greenish or |
| Organic chemistry delivered the final | | | | reddish blue.) |